Traits

A trait tells the Rust compiler about functionality a particular type has and can share with other types.
They are similar to the interfaces in other languages. They are used to define the method signature.
You may define the code implementations inside the impl block of the types that implement that trait.
It is also possible to define a default implementation and then override it in impl block.
Use cases:
- For example, you're creating a library that wants to summarize an article or a tweet. We want to implement this shared functionality.
- We can define a trait to define the interface of this functionality.
```
#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
pub trait Summary {
    fn summarize(&self) -> String;
}
}
```
- Now each type implementing this trait must provide its own custom behavior for the body of the method.

Implementing a trait

Implementing trait on different types

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
pub struct NewsArticle {
    pub headline: String,
    pub location: String,
    pub author: String,
    pub content: String,
}

impl Summary for NewsArticle {
    fn summarize(&self) -> String {
        format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
    }
}

pub struct Tweet {
    pub username: String,
    pub content: String,
    pub reply: bool,
    pub retweet: bool,
}

impl Summary for Tweet {
    fn summarize(&self) -> String {
        format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
    }
}
}

Using types that implements trait:

// You'll require to pull both trait along with the desired type
use aggregator::{Summary, Tweet};

fn main() {
    let tweet = Tweet {
        username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
        content: String::from(
            "of course, as you probably already know, people",
        ),
        reply: false,
        retweet: false,
    };

    println!("1 new tweet: {}", tweet.summarize());
}

Restrictions

One restriction to note with trait implementations is that we can implement a trait on a type only if at least one of the trait or the type is local to our crate.
- For example, we can implement standard library traits like Display on a custom type like Tweet as part of our aggregator crate functionality, because the type Tweet is local to our aggregator crate.
- But we can’t implement external traits on external types. For example, we can’t implement the Display trait on Vec<T> within our aggregator crate, because Display and Vec<T> are defined in the standard library and aren’t local to our aggregator crate.
This restriction is part of a property of programs called coherence, and more specifically the orphan rule, so named because the parent type is not present. This rule ensures that other people’s code can’t break your code and vice versa.

Default Implementations

We can define a default implementation by adding code inside the method signatures of traits.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
pub trait Summary {
    fn summarize(&self) -> String {
        String::from("(Read more...)")
    }
}
}

To use default implementation on a type, we can do that by using empty braces {}.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
impl Summary for NewsArticle {}
}

It is possible to keep a trait with a mix of method signatures and method signatures with default implementations.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
pub trait Summary {
    fn summarize_author(&self) -> String;

    fn summarize(&self) -> String {
        format!("(Read more from {}...)", self.summarize_author())
    }
}
}

Now we only need to require to define summarize_author method inside the impl block of the type that's implementing the trait.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
impl Summary for Tweet {
    fn summarize_author(&self) -> String {
        format!("@{}", self.username)
    }

    // We do not require to define the summarize() method
    // as we can use the trait's default implementation
}
}

Note: Calling the default implementation from an overriding implementation won't work.

Traits as Paramteres

You can define the type of parameters of a function as a trait.
Then, you can pass any type that implements the specified trait.

Here's the syntax for that:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
pub fn notify(item: &impl Summary) {
    println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize());
}
}

Code that calls the function with any other type, such as a String or an i32, won’t compile because those types don’t implement Summary.

The above syntax is the simpler version of this original syntax, known as "trait bound syntax":

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
pub fn notify<T: Summary>(item: &T) {
    println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize());
}
}

It is possible to use this syntax like this:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
pub fn notify<T: Summary>(item1: &T, item2: &T) {
}

It is possible to define multiple trait bounds for a single parameter:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// In both these cases, item must be a type that
// implements both traits Summary and Display

// Method 1 ->
pub fn notify(item: &(impl Summary + Display)) {

// Method 2 ->
pub fn notify<T: Summary + Display>(item: &T) {
}

You can use where clause to declutter the signature. For Example:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn some_function<T, U>(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32
    where T: Display + Clone,
          U: Clone + Debug
{
}

Similar to function parameters, it is possible to return types that implements traits:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Signature says that it'll return any type that implements the trait Summary
fn returns_summarizable() -> impl Summary {
    // Tweet is some type that implements Summary
    Tweet {
        username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
        content: String::from(
            "of course, as you probably already know, people",
        ),
        reply: false,
        retweet: false,
    }
}
}

However, you can only use impl Trait if you’re returning a single type. For example:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// FAIL: Either return NewsArticle or Tweet (only one type that implements Summary)
fn returns_summarizable(switch: bool) -> impl Summary {
    if switch {
        NewsArticle {
          ...
        }
    } else {
        Tweet {
          ...
        }
    }
}
}

Finding the largest character of an array of integer or an array of characters using generics and traits:

// Generic is used as we defined T in the signature, allowing any type to pass
// Trait bound is specified as PartialOrd is added to the signature, allowing any type that allows comparison, and copy (both i32 and char do)
fn largest<T: PartialOrd + Copy>(list: &[T]) -> T {
    let mut largest = list[0];

    for &item in list {
        if item > largest {
            largest = item;
        }
    }

    largest
}

fn main() {
    let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65];

    let result = largest(&number_list);
    println!("The largest number is {}", result);

    let char_list = vec!['y', 'm', 'a', 'q'];

    let result = largest(&char_list);
    println!("The largest char is {}", result);
}

Using Trait Bounds to Conditionally Implement Methods:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
use std::fmt::Display;

struct Pair<T> {
    x: T,
    y: T,
}

impl<T> Pair<T> {
    fn new(x: T, y: T) -> Self {
        Self { x, y }
    }
}

// cmp_display will only run on types bounded by traits Display and PartialOrd, hence works conditionally
impl<T: Display + PartialOrd> Pair<T> {
    fn cmp_display(&self) {
        if self.x >= self.y {
            println!("The largest member is x = {}", self.x);
        } else {
            println!("The largest member is y = {}", self.y);
        }
    }
}
}